Statistics on the Incidence of AIDS in the US Research Paper - 1

Statistics on the Incidence of AIDS in the US - Research Paper Example In 2007, it has been reported that HIV was the third leading cause of mortality for black men and women aged 35-44. HIV also became the ninth leading cause of mortality for all blacks. In fact, about 233,624 Blacks who were diagnosed with AIDS had died in the United States. Moreover, African American women were known to be 22 times more likely to die from HIV/AIDS compared to women from other ethnicities. In 2008, African Americans had the highest rate of death from AIDS, which amounted to 27.5 per 100,000 population. According to Maryland Statistics, Black females incurred higher rates of AIDS mortality compared to women from other races. Table 1 below also supports these statistics. The peak of mortality observed from all races was seen in 1995. Â   In 1995, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) was introduced to the public. Before 1995, the use of protease inhibitors in the United States was not allowed. The United States Food and Drug Administration approved the drugs in December of 1995 and on March of 1996. HAART is associated with decreased mortality and morbidity of patients with HIV/AIDS. Although it is not a cure, it is used for the purpose of improving a patient’s symptoms or even their quality of life. As a result, the patient’s survival rate is also prolonged. HAART is just one of the other lifesaving innovations that have been discovered. Thus, after the year 1995, the mortality rate started to decline slowly. The decline is quite evident and steady on White females. However, with regards to Black females, the mortality rate decreased post-HAART but would increase again after 1998. Afterwards, the rate intermittently increased and decreased. The trends in the mortality rates of Black women with AIDS as compared with White patients is truly intriguing. The disparity is profound. Certain factors can be attributed with such disparities in mortality and morbidity rates observed between ethnicities of women - most especially Blacks and Whites - with HIV/AIDS. It is relevant to identify such factors in order to come up with solutions that could help ease this disparity.

Writing Strategies Essay Example for Free

Writing Strategies Essay Write a response for each of the following activities. Check the Evaluation section at the end of this document to make sure you have met the expected criteria for the assignment. When you have finished, submit your work to your teacher. 1. Purpose, Voice, and Theme Themes in literature, such as heroism, love, corruption, greed, and perseverance, often reflect and relate to the issues we encounter in our daily lives or read about in the news. In this activity, you will develop ideas for an essay that relates a current news issue to a theme from a work of literature you have read. a. Think about some of the literature that you have read. Consider novels, essays, speeches, poems, and short fiction. Brainstorm a list of titles. Type your response here: b. Choose three titles from your list and write them in the chart below. Then list the themes from each work. Remember that the theme of a piece of literature is the main idea, the message, the subject, or the concept that the author is trying to convey by telling the story. Examples of themes include love, hate, the innocence of youth, love of life, courage, struggle, loyalty, survival, and triumph over adversity. Type your response here: |Title |Theme | |The Odyssey |Determination | |The Boy in The Striped Pajamas |Curiosity | | | | c. Begin to develop ideas for a five-paragraph essay exploring a theme from one of the literary works that you listed in the chart above. Select one title from the chart and enter information about this work in the space below. Type your response here: |Title |The Odyssey | |Author |Homer | |Genre |Epic Poetry | |Themes |Determination | In your essay, you will choose one or more themes from the work that you have selected and relate the theme to an issue discussed in the news. For example, you might relate the theme of courage from Jack London’s novel Call of the Wild to the actions of rescue workers after a catastrophic event. Recall this prewriting strategy for generating ideas for your writing: †¢ List what you know. †¢ List what you do not know. †¢ Consider alternative viewpoints. Read this guide to learn more about prewriting strategies. d. What do you know about the themes of the work you selected? What are some examples from the work (such as dialogue, character actions, or narration) that illustrate the theme? What are some news stories and issues that illustrate this theme? Type your response here: It is difficult to be that determined in your works. The main character must fight constant battles just to get back to his home. â€Å"O Brother Where Art Though?† illustrates these characteristics. e. What are some things you do not know about the work you selected for your essay? What are some possible additional themes? What additional evidence from the text can you locate? Type your response here: There are other possible themes. Justice could be a possible theme. The man who tries to steal Odisious’ wife is eventually killed. f. What are some alternative viewpoints you might consider before beginning to write? If possible, collaborate with a classmate and add information about his or her perspective to your own. What themes could a peer identify inthe work you selected? What evidence from the text might he or she suggest? Can someone else suggest additional news or issues that relate to the work’s themes? Type your response here: g. From the ideas that you have generated, identify the theme on which you will base your essay, as well as the issues or news stories that relate to the theme. Type your response here: Determination, my determination while spearfishing. Before beginning to write, consider the purpose and voice of your essay. h. What is your purpose for writing this essay assignment? Type your response here: To copare determination in the odyssey to determination in my own life. i. Based on the purpose for writing you described above, what is an appropriate tone for your essay? Type your response here: Objective. 2. Organizing the Essay a. Record information about your essay in this essay organizer. Type your response here: |Essay Organizer | |Title of work selected |The Odyssey | |Author |Homer | |Genre |Epic Poetry | |Selected theme |Determination | |Evidence from the text that supports |He refuses to give up until he gets home. | |the theme | | |News or issues related to the theme |Spearfishing requires determination as well. | |Author’s purpose |To show the difficulties of spearfishing. | |Selected tone |Objective | b. Create an outline that will help you write a first draft of your essay. Look at this outline template and then create your own outline using information from the essay organizer. [pic] Type your response here: 3. Writing the Essay Now write the first draft of your five-paragraph essay. As you write, be sure to refer to your outline and your essay organizer. As you write and revise your draft, keep in mind: †¢ your audience †¢ your purpose for writing †¢ your writing style Read these guidelines before writing your essay. Type your response here: Note: In the Unit Activity, you will perform a peer review and revise the essay in the unit activity. Evaluation Your teacher will use these rubrics to evaluate the completeness of your work as well as the clarity of thinking you exhibit. Activity 1: Purpose, Voice, and Theme | |Concepts | |Distingui|Lists the titles of at least six works that are related to current news issues | |shed |Chooses three of the most suitable works | |(4 |Accurately identifies the themes of all the works | |points) |Accurately fills in information about the work selected | | |Provides detailed information about the themes of the selected work with several  appropriate examples | | |Identifies news stories and issues in which the chosen theme is central | | |Accurately identifies additional themes | | | Thoroughly considers alternate viewpoints | | |Chooses a theme that encompasses all the ideas generated | |Proficien|Lists the titles of at least four works that are related to current news issues | |t |Chooses three suitable works | |(3 |Correctly identifies the theme of all the works | |points) |Correctly fills in information about the work selected | | |Provides adequate information about the themes of the selected work with a few relevant examples | | |Identifies news stories and issues that are closely related to the chosen theme | | |Correctly identifies plausible additional themes | | | Adequately considers alternate viewpoints | | |Chooses a theme that encompasses most of the ideas generated | |Developin|Lists the titles of three works that are related to current news issues | |g |At least two of the chosen works are suitable | |(2 |Roughly identifies the themes of at least two works | |points) |Correctly fills in information about the work selected | | |Provides meaningful information about the themes of the selected work with at least one relevant example | | |Identifies news  stories and issues that are clearly related to the chosen theme | | |Roughly identifies at least one plausible additional theme | | |Considers some alternate viewpoints | | | Chooses a theme that encompasses some of the ideas generated | |Beginning|Lists the titles of fewer than three works that are related to current news issues | |(1 point)|Few of the chosen works are suitable | | |Fails to identify the themes of the works | | |Provides some incorrect information about the work selected or is missing information | | |Provides information about the themes of the selected work without relevant examples | | | Identifies news stories and issues that are marginally related or unrelated to the chosen theme | | |Does not identify a plausible additional theme | | |Does not consider alternate viewpoints | | |Chooses a theme that encompasses few of the ideas generated | Activity 2: Organizing the Essay | |Criteria | |Distingui|Thoroughly explains the purpose of the essay | |shed |Chooses the most appropriate tone for the essay | |(4 |Records information accurately in the essay organizer | |points) |Creates an outline that is highly consistent with the information in the organizer  | |Proficien|Adequately explains the purpose of the essay | |t |Chooses an appropriate tone for the essay | |(3 |Records information in the essay organizer | |points) |Creates an outline that is largely consistent with the information in the organizer | | Developin|Roughly explains the purpose of the essay | |g |Chooses a somewhat appropriate tone for the essay | |(2 |Records incomplete information in the essay organizer | |points) |Creates an outline that is roughly consistent with the information in the organizer | |Beginning|Briefly mentions the purpose of the essay | |(1 point)|Does not choose an appropriate tone for the essay | | |Records information inaccurately or incorrectly in the essay organizer | | |Creates an outline that is inconsistent with the information in the organizer | Activity 3: Writing the Essay | |Criteria | |Distingui|Highly consistent with the outline and the essay organizer | |shed |Very relevant to the intended audience | |(4 |Closely reflects the purpose of writing | |points) |Exhibits a highly consistent writing style | | |Correct syntax, spelling, and punctuation throughout  | | |Ideas effectively grouped in paragraphs in a smooth, logical sequence | |Proficien|Largely consistent with the outline and the essay organizer | |t |Relevant to the audience | |(3 |Largely consistent with the purpose of writing | |points) |Exhibits a largely consistent writing style | | | Largely uses correct syntax, spelling, and punctuation | | |Ideas grouped in paragraphs in a logical sequence | |Developin|Roughly consistent with the outline and the essay organizer | |g |Somewhat relevant to the audience | |(2 |Roughly consistent with the purpose of writing | |points) |Exhibits a somewhat consistent writing style | | |Noticeable mistakes in syntax, spelling, and punctuation | | |Ideas grouped in paragraphs in a somewhat meaningful sequence | | Beginning|Inconsistent with the outline and the essay organizer | |(1 point)|Not relevant to the audience | | |Not consistent with the purpose of writing | | |Does not exhibit a consistent writing style | | |Numerous mistakes in syntax, spelling, and punctuation | | |Ideas grouped in paragraphs, but sequence is neither smooth nor logical | Lesson Activities English 11 I. Introduction, beginning with a thesis statement II. First example describing how the theme relates to a current issue or news story a. evidence from the text b. evidence from the text III. Second example a. evidence from the text b. evidence from the text IV. Third example a. evidence from the text b. evidence from the text V. Conclusion

Human Development and Behaviour Case Study

Human Development and Behaviour Case Study Kaitlyn Elliot In this essay I will look at the different stages of some of the care service users in the case study and identify their aspects of development and their influences. I will also look at their life experiences and how a care worker could understand the behaviour of a care service user in the case study. Seamus who is at his older adulthood stage has multiple sclerosis and has been very ill for some time. It is important to find meaning of life instead of not wanting to do anything because you are old and feel like you should not be doing certain things. Physically Seamus reaction time is slowing down because of the loss of brain connections that break down as he gets older. He will find a gradual loss in muscle strength and mobility. Having strong muscles is important as they provide the force and strength to move the body so this will affect his posture and walk, and lead to slower movement. Having Multiple sclerosis also influences his physical development such as his vision, balance and can cause dizziness. This will make it harder for him to do the things he normally does in life or he maybe has to ask Marie to do it for him. Emotionally Seamus will be feeling more dependent on others and this could be making him upset or even depressed. He will be feeling worthless and helpless . These emotions could be influenced by the psychological reaction to MS or the side effects of the drugs he is having to take. He just wants to be treated the same way he was when he wasnt in the older adulthood stage. Stress is a normal part of life for most people and Seamus might be feeling stressed and upset about his daughter be depressed and trying to take her own life, but in addition people with MS have to deal with the pressure the condition itself causes. Seamus grandchildren visiting often would be a great pleasure for him and make him happy however they have been moved to residential units so he wont get to see them. Socialising in the older adulthood stage is important for the stimulation and motivation and may be more confident and experience a social life since he has more free time. However, he might struggle to go out because of his condition. Contact with his own children is important however his daughter is in hospital so he might find this hard to keep in contac t with her. Cognitive development is also important in the older adulthood as they dont want to feel useless. However, Seamus might take in new information slower than he used to. MS can also cause memory and thinking problems. He might also be unable to find the right word that he is thinking about. Celebrating familiar culture traditions can be comforting for Seamus and maybe make him happier. Having a sense of belonging to a community is important for him and may help him feel useful in a way and also wanted. John is at his adolescence stage in life and is going through a lot of development stages. Physically he is rapidly increasing in growth and weight and he is just starting to hit puberty this means his voice is deepening and has a large increase in muscle strength. Peers are very important at this stage and they might be influencing him at school to not be doing his homework as they dont think its cool enough for them. However because John is staying with his grandparents due to changes in family circumstances they do not allow him to have any friends over to socialize with, so this could be effecting his social development in a way that he feels lonely. John is having a lot of conflict with his grandparents as they do not like loud music and are becoming intolerant of having the children living with them. Emotionally John will be feeling upset and not knowing how to cope with the death of his father or the way his mum is. We can also see he is angry when his sister is put in a diffe rent residential unit 50 miles away from the one he is at and that she starts to make new friends and he has already absconded twice. Johns cognitive development is strongly noticed when he questions the views of his grandfather and starts to argue with him when he is trying to help him do his homework. Johns father Fred wanted his children to be doctors but John questions this when his grandfather is pushing him to be one when all he cares about is footballs. Being a part of peer culture is important for john at his age however with his grandparents being strict and not allowing him to do so is affecting his cultural development. Ola has had a few life experiences in her time one of these being the road accident where she lost her husband and had to give up working because of her injuries and depression from the accident. The Kubler Ross Grief cycle is a theory which allows us to understand how grief can impact on Olas life. Ola is currently in the denial and depression stage of the cycle as she is refusing to accept the facts and reality of the crash and she is also avoiding her own children and family as she may be feeling overwhelmed and helplessness after being admitted to hospital after trying to take her own life. A care worker could understand Johns behaviour by looking at the Carol Rodgers theory, as he believes that people can only fulfil their potential for growth if they have a positive view about their self and this can only happen if they are valued and respected by those around them. We can see that John doesnt feel valued or respected by his grandparents as they are not allowing him to have any friends over or even have a social life and just want him to do homework so he does well at school as his dad wanted his kids to be doctors when all John really cares about is football so this shows us he is not able to fulfil his potential for growth. Another theory the care worker could use is Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. This theory is similar to Rodgers as they both believe that all humans are motivated towards achieving their full potential. Maslow stated that People are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical s urvival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behaviour. Frustrated and unmet needs can lead to dysfunctional behaviour. John isnt achieving the belongingness and love needs as he has lost his dad, his mum is refusing to see him and his grandparents are struggling to cope with him and his sister so moved them to residential units which has angered john and caused him to lash out. So this could be another way a care user could try to understand why johns behaviour is the way it is and help support him through his difficulties. References: SFEU (2007) National Qualifications Phycology for Care Intermediate 2 www.simplypyschology.org

Harry Elmer Barnes :: essays research papers

In 1952, Harry Elmer Barnes wrote a timely article, "How 'Nineteen Eighty-Four' Trends Threaten American Peace, Freedom, and Prosperity" as the final chapter of the classic revisionist anthology, Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace. Barnes analyzed George Orwell's classic novel as a work of prophecy and sounded the alarm to reverse the "1984" trends prevalent in the America of his day. Barnes argued that propagandists and "court historians" were fashioning a present, based on a falsified and inaccurate telling of the past, that was designed to meet Establishment desires to participate in world wars. Ironically,Barnes' article was omitted from the first edition the collection.(1) Barnes may be best remembered as the author of the generally accepted definition of "revisionism," "Revisionism means nothing more or less than the effort to correct the historical record in the light of a more complete collection of historical facts, a more calm political atmosphere, and a more objective attitude." (2) Barnes had discovered that a more nearly accurate version of the history of the First World War was only possible after the fighting had ended and the emotional excesses had lessened. He was unable to predict that similar corrections of Allied propaganda and popularized conceptions of the methods of warfare in the Second World War would meet even sterner resistance. Today - half a century after the conclusion of the Second World War - it would be fair to expect a less emotional environment, one in which historians, researchers and writers were free to examine the actual causes of the war as well as the atrocities committed by both sides in the conflict. However, those and other topics are more forbidden than ever with the greatest taboo surrounding analysis of the fate of Europe's Jews and others in what has come to be known as the Holocaust. In 1950, three years prior to Barnes' article concerning "1984" trends another author, Ray Bradbury, set out a foreboding vision of the future in a short story titled, "The Fireman." Later, Bradbury's story would be renamed Fahrenheit 451 after the temperature at which paper burns. Fahrenheit 451 describes a horrific future in which millions of books are banned and firemen set fires instead of extinguishing them. In order to maintain a society of brainwashed, "happy" people, the firemen kick down doors and burn the hated volumes along with the homes that housed them. Barnes would never have suspected how fast the world would progress from the "1984" trends he identified to the trends Bradbury identified in Fahrenheit 451(3).

Funeral Customs

Funeral custom world wide Death: the act of dying; the end of life; the total and permanent cessation of all the vital functions of an organism. Death is a very painful and emotional time, yet one that may be filled with hope and mercy and is base off of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical enquiry. Belief in some kind of afterlife or rebirth has been a central aspect of most, if not all, religious traditions and as a result of that over time there has been different type of funeral customs developed in the world. The trace of funeral service is a history of mankind. Funeral customs are as old as evolution itself. Funeral customs are rituals surrounding the death of a human being and the subsequent disposition of the corpse. Such rites may serve to mark the passage of a person from life into death, to secure the welfare of the dead, to comfort the living, and to protect the living from the dead. Disposal of the body may be by burial , by conservation or by cremation , by exposure or by other methods. Funeral ceremonies have certain common features: for example, the laying out of the corpse; the watching of the dead, of which the wake is a standard example; and the period of mourning with the accompanying ceremonies. www. encyclopedia. com/doc/1E1-funeralc) â€Å"Every culture and civilization attends to the proper care of their dead. Every culture and civilization ever studied has three things in common relating to death and the disposition of the dead. Some type of funeral rites, rituals, and ceremonies or a sacred place for the dead and memorialization of the dead Researchers have found bur ial grounds of Neanderthal man dating to 60,000 BC with animal antlers on the body and flower fragments next to the corpse indicating some type of ritual and gifts of remembrance†. www. wyfda. org/basics) Funeral customs were diverse in many cultures. Some culture treated the male funerals different from the female funerals. The Cochieans buried their women, but suspended their men from trees. The Gonds buried their women but cremated their men. The Bongas buried their men with their faces to the North and their women with their faces to the South. (www. wyfda. org/basics) Body burial or direct burial simply means placing a body in the ground after death, although it also applies to storing the whole body aboveground in a ausoleum, vault, or other type of crypt. (www. caring. com/articles/body-burial-arrangements)they also found that in the medieval time the king would be buried without a heart. (Puckle 120) The Gonds are among the largest tribal groups in South Asia and perha ps the world. The term Gond refers to tribal peoples who live all over India's Deccan Peninsula. Most describe themselves as Gonds (hill people) or as Koi or Koitur. (www. everyculture. com/wc/Germany-to-Jamaica/Gonds. ) Funeral custom hasn’t really changed over time there are still similar or same customs still used today. They often had Memorials which allow friends, relatives and acquaintances to express their feelings and to share their memories. Many bereaved people find them helpful and are pleased to have provided a ceremony their loved ones would have wanted. (www. humanism. org. uk/ceremonies/humanist-funerals-memorials) Native American burial customs have varied widely, not only geographically, but also through time, having been shaped by differing environments, social structure, and spiritual beliefs. Prehistoric civilizations evolved methods of caring for the dead that reflected either the seasonal movements of nomadic societies or the life ways of settled communities organized around fixed locations. As they evolved, burial practices included various forms of encasement, sub-surface interment, cremation, and exposure. Custom usually dictated some type of purification ritual at the time of burial. Certain ceremonies called for secondary interments following incineration or exposure of the body, and in such cases, the rites might extend over some time period. Where the distinctions in social status were marked, the rites were more elaborate. The Plains Indians and certain Indians of the Pacific Northwest commonly practiced above-ground burials using trees, scaffolds, canoes, and boxes on stilts, which decayed over time. (www. nps. gov/history/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb41/nrb41_5) Many of our funeral customs have their historical basis in pagan rituals. Modern mourning clothing came from the custom of wearing special clothing as a disguise to hide identity from returning spirits. Pagans believed that returning spirits would fail to recognize them in their new attire and would be confused and overlook them. Covering the face of the deceased with a sheet stems from pagan tribes who believed that the spirit of the deceased escaped through the mouth. They would often hold the mouth and nose of a sick person shut, hoping to retain the spirits and delay death. Feasting and gatherings associated with the funeral began as an essential part of the primitive funeral where food offerings were made. Wakes held today come from ancient customs of keeping watch over the deceased hoping that life would return. The lighting of candles comes from the use of fire mentioned earlier in attempts to protect the living from the spirits. The practice of ringing bells comes from the common medieval belief that the spirits would be kept at bay by the ringing of a consecrated bell. The firing of a rifle volley over the deceased mirrors the tribal practice of throwing spears into the air to ward off spirits hovering over the deceased. Originally, holy water was sprinkled on the body to protect it from the demons. Floral offerings were originally intended to gain favor with the spirit of the deceased. Funeral music had its origins in the ancient chants designed to placate the spirits. (www. wyfda. org/basics) Funerals rank among the most expensive purchases many consumers will ever make. A traditional funeral, including a casket and vault, costs about $6,000, although â€Å"extras† like flowers, obituary notices, acknowledgment cards or limousines can add thousands of dollars to the bottom line. Many funerals run well over $10,000. (www. pueblo. gsa. gov/cic_text/misc/funeral/funeral. ) More and more people are choosing to be cremated, and there are even more choices for cremation urns than for caskets (www. uneralplan. com) The time after the death or passing away of a people in India are given a lot of importance. As per the Hindu Holy Scripture like the Bhagwat Git, it is believed that the soul of the person who has just passed away is on its way to the next level of existence at such a time. As such, it is with an intention to help the departed soul in a peaceful crosso ver to that next level of his /her existence, that Indians observe so many death rites and rituals. Basic idea behind the Indians' following all these funeral traditions is to show reverence to the deceased person. Normally during this time, all the family members share each other’s sorrows and pray, so that the soul of the deceased person rests peacefully. At the end of one year, all elderly members of the deceased person gather once again for the Shraad ceremony. The 3rd, 5th, 7th or 9th day after the death of the person are also important, as all relatives gather to have a meal of the deceased's favorite foods. A small amount of the food is offered before his /her photo and later, it is ceremonially left at an abandoned place, along with a lit diya. However, there may be slight variations in the way people of different religious sect observe this death rite. (www. iloveindia. com/indian-traditions/funeral-traditions) Chinese funeral rites and burial customs are determined by the age of the deceased, cause of death, status and position in society, and marital status Preparation for a funeral often begins before a death has occurred. When a person is on his/her deathbed, a coffin will often have already been ordered by the family. A traditional Chinese coffin is rectangular with three ‘humps', although it more common in modern times for a western style coffin to be used. The coffin is provided by an undertaker who oversees all funeral rites. When a death occurs in a family all statues of deities in the house are covered up with red paper not to be exposed to the body or coffin and all mirrors are removed it is believed that one who sees the reflection of a coffin in a mirror will shortly have a death in his/her family. A white cloth is hung over the doorway to the house and a gong is placed to the left of the entrance if the deceased is a male, and to the right if female. At the wake, the family members of the deceased gather around the coffin positioned according to their rank in the family and special clothing is worn: Children and daughters-in-law wear black signifying that they grieve the most; grandchildren, blue; and great grandchildren, light blue. Sons-in-law wear brighter colors, such as white, since they are considered outsiders. The children and daughters-in-law also wear a hood of sackcloth over their heads. The eldest son sits at the left shoulder of his parent and the deceased's spouse on the right. Relatives arriving later must crawl on their knees towards the coffin. The funeral ceremony traditionally lasts over 49 days — the first seven being the most important. Prayers are said every seven days for 49 days if the family can afford it. Otherwise, the period can be shortened by three to seven days. Usually, it is the responsibility of the daughters to bear the funeral expenses. The head of the family should be present for at least the first and possibly the second prayer ceremony. The number of ceremonies conducted depends on the financial situation of the family. The head of the family should also be present for the burial or cremation. In the second tradition, the prayer ceremony is held every 10 days: The initial ceremony and three succeeding periods of 10 days until the final burial or cremation. (www. chinaculture. org) The funeral and religious custom of burying the dead in Africa has some of the most complex customs. The ceremony is purely animist, and apparently without any set ritual. The main exception is that the females of the family of the deceased and their friends may undergo mournful lamentations. In some instances they work their feelings up to an ostentatious, frenzy-like degree of sorrow. The revelry may be heightened by the use of alcohol, of which drummers, flute-players, bards, and singing men may partake. The funeral may last for as long as a week. Another funeral custom, a kind of memorial, frequently takes place seven years after the person's death. These funerals and especially the memorials may be extremely expensive for the family in question. Cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry, may be offered in remembrance and then consumed in festivities. Some funerals in Ghana are held with the deceased put in elaborate â€Å"fantasy coffins† colored and shaped after a certain object, such as a fish, crab, boat, and even an airplane. www. a-to-z-of-manners-and-etiquette. com/funeral-and-religious-customs. ) Japanese funeral customs vary widely from region to region, so a generic description is not possible. The religion of the deceased person's family also has a bearing on the final arrangements, as do other factors such as the age at which the person died social st atus and the family's economic circumstances. The body is put on dry ice(3) in a room at the mortuary or in front of the family altar (most Japanese are Buddhists) and the next of kin stay with it or close-by until it is time to put it in the casket. By this time all of the close relatives will have changed into black suits and black kimono or black dresses. The Buddhist priest arrives at the scheduled time and is offered green tea. He speaks briefly with the family, during which time people who have not entered the room yet come in and sit on the floor (or on chairs if it is a funeral hall). After everyone has entered, the priest turns to the altar, bows, lights incense and begins to read a sutra. During the sutra reading, the priest gives a signal and the members of the family, who are seated in hierarchical order, rise and go to the incense urn, bow, offer incense, bow again and return to their seats. After the family members have finished, the visitors repeat the ritual until everyone has finished. The priest finishes the sutra, after which everyone bows to the altar and the wake service ends. Depending on the Buddhist sect, everyone may chant the â€Å"mantra† of the Buddhist sect in unison at points during the service. The funeral is usually held on the day after the wake service. The body is transferred to a temple (in the case where the wake was held at home) and placed before the altar that the mortuary has constructed in front of the temple altar. A wooden tablet inscribed with the posthumous name (4) of the deceased is placed on the altar or in front of it. The posthumous name is assigned and inscribed by the priest. (www. tanutech. com/japan/jfunerals) A Jewish funeral service is conducted in a funeral home or the family home as soon as possible after death – typically within 24 hours. Funeral attire consists of dark-colored clothing, a dress or skirt and blouse for women, and a jacket and tie for men. Men also wear a head covering known as a yarmulke, which will be provided by the funeral director for non-Jewish male guests. Guests should refrain from wearing symbols of other religions, such as a cross. Only family members attend the burial. Condolence visits by friends and extended family are welcomed during the seven-day mourning period known as shivah. Friends and neighbors may prepare the family's first meal following the funeral and may also bring gifts of food during shivah. If you bring food, make sure it is kosher, unless you know for certain that the family doesn't keep kosher. www. thelightbeyond. com/funeral_etiquette_customs_across_cultures) Just as there is a way to live as a Jew, there is also a â€Å"way to die and be buried as a Jew,† writes Blu Greenberg in her book, How to Run a Traditional Jewish Household (Fireside, 1983). This classic guide to Jewish living outlines traditional death rituals and practical issues, although many of these practices have be en adapted somewhat by Reform Jews. The first thing to do after a death in the family, if you belong to a synagogue and the family member lives near you, is to contact your rabbi or another synagogue leader. Usually, the synagogue will take over many of the arrangements. However, when your family member lives far away and is not a member of a congregation, or when you are not a member, funeral homes can often suggest rabbis who will conduct a funeral. Jewish burials take place as quickly as possible, following a principle of honoring the dead (k'vod hamet). Only if immediate relatives cannot arrive in time from abroad, or there is not enough time for burial before Shabbat or a holiday, are burials postponed for a day. Anything less is considered a â€Å"humiliation of the dead,† Greenberg explains. www. jewishfederations. org/page. aspx? id=937) .When a Muslim is near death, those around him or her are called upon to give comfort, and reminders of God's mercy and forgiveness. They may recite verses from the Qur'an, give physical comfort, and encourage the dying one to recite words of remembrance and prayer. It is recommended, if at all possible, for a Muslim's last words to be the declaration of faith: â€Å"I bear witness that there is no god but Allah. † Upon death, those with the deceased are encouraged to remain calm, pray for the departed, and begin preparations for burial. Muslims strive to bury the deceased as soon as possible after death, avoiding the need for embalming or otherwise disturbing the body of the deceased. An autopsy may be performed, if necessary, but should be done with the utmost respect for the dead. (islam. about. com/cs/elderly/a/funerals) The male in Muslim culture body get completely washes before they die. (Triton 1) The different funeral customs has provided evidence that there are so many different way to perform a ceremonies burial rituals etc†¦ Funeral customs has provided different tradition around the world to be spread through different culture and countries worldwide. Work Cited 1. http://www. chinaculture. org/gb/en_chinaway/2004-03/03/content_46092. htm 2. http://www. iloveindia. com/indian-traditions/funeral-traditions. html 3. http://www. wyfda. org/basics_2. html 4. http://www. caring. com/articles/body-burial-arrangements 5. http://www. humanism. org. uk/ceremonies/humanist-funerals-memorials 6. http://www. a-to-z-of-manners-and-etiquette. com/funeral-and-religious-customs. html 7. http://www. encyclopedia. com/doc/1E1-funeralc. html 8. http://www. tanutech. com/japan/jfunerals. html 9. http://www. jewishfederations. org/page. aspx? id=937

Fate Throughout Sophocless Three Theban Plays Antigone Oedipus Rex Oedipus at Colonus essays

Fate Throughout Sophocless Three Theban Plays Antigone Oedipus Rex Oedipus at Colonus essays Fate Throughout Sophocless Three Theban Plays: Antigone, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus The classical Greek writers have given the world major literary themes. One such theme is Fate. According to Websters New World Dictionary of the American Language the word fate is defined as the principal or determining cause or will by which things in general are believed to come to be as they are or events to happen as they do: destiny(529). The Theme Fate is applicable to Oedipus and his lineage, in Sophecless three Theban plays: Antigone, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus. Fate plays a cruel role in the lives of everyone related to Oedipus. Not only was Oedipus's life condemned from the beginning, but the lives of his four children were also ill fated. The entire bloodline, beginning with Oedipus, met a tragic end or led a tragic life through no fault of their own. Thomas Gould explains, sometimes it is suggested that Oedipus would not have avoided his misery by having been a better man, but he could have remained prosperous and happy if he had been a less good man (Gould 51). If not for Fate, the lives of Oedipus and his entire family could have been much better off. The whole debacle started with the birth of Oedipus. Oedipus was the only child of Laius and Jocasta, king and queen of Thebes. They took Oedipus to the oracle at Delphi to have his prophecy read. The oracle prophesized that Oedipus would kill his father and marry his mother, "... Why, Loxias declared that I should one day marry my own mother, And with my own hands shed my father's blood. Wherefore Corinth I have kept away far, for long years; and prospered; none the less it is most sweet to see one's parents' face..."(ll. 556-559, 187). In order to prevent this from happening, Laius and Jocasta pierced Oedipus's foot and ordered a shepherd to abandon him on a mo...

Outsiders locking in essays

Outsiders locking in essays In the United States something very odd happened during the period of time from the middle of the 1950's up to the impact of the crisis of the 1960's. For once in the storied history of the United States a majority of Americans accepted the same system of assumptions. This shared system of assumptions is known as the liberal consensus. The main reason there was such a thing as liberal consensus was because of the extreme economic growth we experienced in the U.S. during the post World War II era. However, the consensus didn't apply to one important group of people. These were the combat soldiers it the Vietnam War. Their experiences at home and abroad suggest that they were outsiders to the ideology that Godfrey Hodgson outlines in his book America In Our Time and that they were not motivated by the promises and values of the liberal consensus. To understand what makes these soldiers outsiders we must first understand what the liberal consensus was. Hogson argues that the social and intellectual world view of the 1950's and early 1960's was based on the ideology that "capitalism was a revolutionary force for social change, that economic growth was supremely good because it obviated the need for redistribution and social conflict, that class had no place in American politics." This is the reason for such a liberal consensus, but what is it really? First, the liberals consisted of the Democratic Party, middle class college students, the civil rights movement, and some members of the labor community. Also known as the Left, these groups of people shared a common belief in anti-communism, the rights of minorities, the willingness to accept the existence of the labor unions, and that the federal government had to play some role in the economic life of the U.S. capitalist system. "Since the consensus had made converts on the Right as well as on the Left, only a handful dissidents were excluded from the Big Tent: southern die...

The Deadly Truth- A Research Paper on Euthanasia

The Deadly Truth- A Research Paper on Euthanasia Free Online Research Papers Euthanasia: is it really necessary? Euthanasia, otherwise known as mercy killing or physician assisted suicide, is the intentional killing of a dependent human for his or her alleged benefit. There are many types of Euthanasia. Among these are voluntary, non-voluntary, and involuntary Euthanasia. Voluntary Euthanasia is after the person has requested to be killed; non-voluntary is when the person has given no consent or made no request; and last but not least there is involuntary Euthanasia, which is when the person has expressed a wish to the contrary. Euthanasia is not truly euthanasia unless the person who is killed is in fact killed intentionally (â€Å"Euthanasia†). One would think many and most people would be against this killing of innocent people, however; this is not the case. The numbers have gotten better, though. In a poll given in 1996, seventy- five percent of the United States was in favor for Euthanasia, but in 1997, the numbers changed. In June of 1997, fifty- seven percent supported it and thirty- five percent of people opposed Euthanasia. Religious When one thinks of Euthanasia, usually a strong figure in their mind is Dr. Kevorkian. This was the doctor that was known throughout the world for the physician assisted suicides that he performed. He was sentenced to jail for many reasons, one being the suspicion of pushing his patients to partake in it, rather than letting them making their own decision in the matter of their own life. Euthanasia is wrong and should be illegal for the following reasons: Euthanasia is biblically and morally wrong, it puts a value on a human life, and also Euthanasia is compromising the doctoring practice as a whole because of how people view this medical procedure. The first thing to know is that euthanasia is biblically and morally wrong. In Exodus 21:14 its states, â€Å" But if a man schemes and kills another man deliberately, take him away from my altar and put him to death.† (Barker 118) Also, in the Ten Commandments, Exodus 20:13, it states, â€Å"Thou shall not murder.† (Barker 117). There are numerous examples such as these listed throughout The Bible. Secondly, Euthanasia has begun to put a value on the human life. Many people see it okay to kill in self- defense, which it is. In a self defense one is saving an innocent life, but when performing euthanasia one is taking an innocent life, no one’s life is being saved here. (â€Å"Euthanasia†) Many doctors now are not taking other people lives into consideration and instead of pushing them against it they are more forcing the patients into assisted suicide. Given, there are people that are in a vegetative state; Euthanasia should not be their way out of life. Every human life has the same value. Just because someone is one way or another, does not on ANY grounds mean that their life means anything less than someone else’s life. These lives should be protected. Physician Last but not least Euthanasia is compromising the doctoring practice. People are losing trust in all doctors because of the few that practice Euthanasia. Many doctors are not like Steven A. Wahls, who stated, â€Å"As a physician who practices ‘in the front lines’ I have had the privilege of caring for many individuals with terminal illness. I am proud to say that for each one has been handled with compassion and care, good pain relief, and emotional as well as spiritual support with out any assistance in shortening their ‘time of dying†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Wekesser 107). If you look at doctors now, they are more and more increasing to going to assisted suicide. Seventy-five percent of people who attempt suicide do not actually want to die and it’s all just a cry for attention. National Euthanasia is wrong and should stay illegal. Instead of using a suicide method, why not use the Will-to-Live project? This project states that you have named someone to make a decision for you in case terminally ill or put into a terminally ill state. There will be clear written instructions on the medical treatment that you are to receive, no questions asked. (â€Å"National†) Do the right thing and help save our population! Research Papers on The Deadly Truth- A Research Paper on EuthanasiaArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Capital PunishmentThe Fifth HorsemanThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoGenetic EngineeringThree Concepts of PsychodynamicBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesUnreasonable Searches and Seizures

Talent Management In Abu Dhabi Aircraft Technologies Dissertation

Talent Management In Abu Dhabi Aircraft Technologies - Dissertation Example In the global business environment where competition is intense and a large number of multinational organizations compete with each other for the same markets, it is important that organizations value their competitive resources and make try to differentiate themselves from competition (Sandler, 2006). In most cases, the concept of competitive advantage means having a resource that is valuable and unique and which the other organization cannot easily emulate, thus having the benefit over our competition. This resource could be in the form of access to the scarce raw materials, innovative operational processes or having unique competencies in market distribution systems. However, more recently, human resources are too being recognized as a source of competitive advantage (Sullivan, 2004). Pre-established theories like organizational theory and agency theory help in reaching an understanding that human resources can provide a distinct and unique advantage to an organization, not only o n the basis of their skills and abilities, but also as a result of their commitment and engagement with their organizations (Romans, 2005). Worldwide surveys i.e. annual national surveys conducted by U.S. office of personnel management and other global organization like deloitte and CIPD etc, have revealed that organizations that have satisfied and happy employees were able to be more effective and perform better on indices like sales, revenue generation, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty.

Public Relations College Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Public Relations College - Essay Example This term was initiated by Thomas Jefferson. This was in the year 1807. It was first defined by Edward Bernays. He defined it as a management function with policies and programs that help an organisation to earn acceptance from the public. Research shows that throughout history public relations were used. One of the people that used it includes Georgiana Cavendish. 1 This was during the 18th century. She used so many approaches like lobbying the business. This she did with the help of her friends. She also incorporated press relations in her public relations venture. There are also many other people through out history that used public relations. For instance the American precursors carried out the promotion of circuses. In fact research shows that public relations were started in the United States. This was done such that the railroads were supported. Research shows that Railway literature book was the first to be reported to have the term public relations. This was in the year 1897. The public relations today have gone through many changes since the initiation. New techniques have been incorporated unlike what used to happen before. For instance there is the use of focus groups. This was never carried out initially but rather much generalization was done. When the public relations are carried out a specific group of people is targeted. For instance the loyal customers in the organisation can be a target group. 2 There is also the use of new technology in making sure that information reaches the clients. For instance since the nineteenth century, the internet has really been used in remitting information to clients. There is also the use of satellite feeds in the public relations. Today people need vast knowledge like economics and management principles to carry out public relations. For efficiency and effectiveness basic communication skills knowledge has to be studied by the concerned managers. Even video productions are widely used by various organizations. Nowadays many organisations have got a public relations department that deal with all the issues concerning the public in general. When the above evolution of public relations is evaluated one realizes that there used to be limitation in the communication because the technology was not advanced at that time. The public relations were carried out quite generally and therefore the desired effects were not well achieved. For instance the entire process was quite generalized that it did not deal with a specific focus group. This really limited the effectiveness. The communication could take time before being communicated. This is unlike what is happening in the organisations today because technology has really enhanced communication. Relationship marketing Relationship marketing is all about having tactics that are event driven. It is about retaining the customers in the business organization. It is a process and not an issue of a single event. Relationship marketing is usually carried out by having tactics that will help in retaining the loyal customers in the hospitality industry. The customers include local and the international tourists. The marketing messages in this case have to be moulded in line with the customer's life cycle. Through this there is usually high profitability since the customers are satisfied. For instance in the hospitalit

The price elasticity of gasoline in the United States has been Essay

The price elasticity of gasoline in the United States has been estimated to be 0.15. if this is so, should profit maximizing gasoline stations raise their prices Explain why or why not - Essay Example Since gasoline is considered as normal goods the income elasticity will be positive. The estimated price elasticity will vary according to income, demography and the geography. The demand for gasoline is closely associated with the fuel economy of the vehicles. If the price of the gasoline rises the profit maximizing gasoline companies will not be able to raise the prices according to their wish as in such cases the consumers will shift to the more fuel efficient vehicles which will ultimately lead to a fall in demand conditions for gasoline1. The rebounding effect will have a role to play in this case. The organizations may witness a rise in demand in the short run but in the long run the demand will not be persistent and in fact the demand will fall further than expected. Gillingham, K. 2011. How Do Consumers Respond to Gasoline Price Shocks? Heterogeneity in Vehicle Choice and Driving Behavior. Available at: http://www.umass.edu/resec/seminars/docs/Gillingham_ConsumerResponseGasPrices.pdf. [Accessed: 18th October,

Relationships with community, family and between male and female are a Essay

Relationships with community, family and between male and female are a constant source of inspiration for Irish writers. Discuss with reference to examples from three genres - Essay Example We would also note that it was indeed Declan Kiberd, the famous professor, author and literary theorist, who criticized the concept of ‘Inventing Ireland’, stating that the literary structure of Ireland was much more than a mere dumping ground of various colonial views. Considered Ireland’s foremost intellectual, Professor Kiebred, who also happened to be an expert in the old Celtic culture and a renowned speaker of the Irish language, argued that the colonial view was superimposed by the English literary class and that there was no truth in their implications. Inventing Ireland was often considered an antidote to the political oppression of a dominant imperial culture and was in reality a fractured theory of a post colonial era which had lesser facts and more farce. The text of ‘Inventing Ireland’ is a comprehensive study of almost all Irish writers and has a large section which is reserved exclusively to highlight the importance of Irish women write rs. (Kiberd, 1997) James Joyce, the author of Dubliners, took cue from the rising Irish Nationalism and depicted his characters as those in search of a national identity. The book discloses the dilemma of the characters that are left standing at a crossroad which has ideas and influences converging through various streams. Out here, confusion reigns supreme and the character is forced to have a better self understanding. The narration, which has children as protagonists, progresses to elderly couples as the stories advance. It highlights the lives and the relationships between males and females and has a direct impact on the author’s intellect to help him provide a true picture of the lives of the Irish Middle Class in the 20 century. The books are incidentally centered on Dublin and provide an insight into the lives and the relationships of a family with the outer world. Considered one of the most

DQ1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

DQ1 - Essay Example Consumers decide about the goods and services they prefer to purchase while the objective of business firms is to decide on how to produce products and the variety of products to be produced. Government entities aim to provide public services and decide on the methods to finance them. The behavior of these varying sections of the society may be termed as purposeful behavior in terms of managing resources and finance, though it may be noted that institutions and people are not free from faulty decision making because decisions are influenced by emotions and by people around the decision maker. Economists consider the marginal analysis while decision making; a comparison of marginal costs and marginal benefits. In this context, marginal means additional, extra or a change in. For example, economists analyze whether a business should reduce or expand or whether the government should increase or decrease funds for a particular cause. A rational decision maker must compare both marginal costs and benefits while making a choice. Economics gives significance to scientific methods to observe consumption behaviors and outcomes and derives hypothesis (cause and effect), tests and modifies the hypotheses using facts and finally evolves it into economic theories or principles that predicts the outcomes of specific actions. Therefore, it is important to study economics, because economics concerns with theories and methods that support facts about how institutions and individuals essentially behave in producing, consuming and exchanging goods and services and thereby find a logical balance while consuming the available resources in this world (McConnell 2005 p.4-6). The sacrifice made by the society to acquire more of one product and when the society forgoes the chance of availing the next best thing, the sacrifice is called the opportunity cost of choice. Every option includes marginal benefits because of marginal costs (scarce resources). While making a reasonable

Does capital punishment equate to cruel and unusual punishment Essay

Does capital punishment equate to cruel and unusual punishment - Essay Example This paper is an attempt to identify whether capital punishments can be regarded as cruel and unusual punishments which should be prohibited in the nation. It is essential to consider the Supreme Court’s legislative rulings over capital punishments. In the Gregg v. Georgia case the Supreme Court made it clear that â€Å"the death penalty is not considered cruel and unusual punishment, nor grossly disproportionate to the crime, provided the court’s review procedure affords procedural safeguards to prevent arbitrary or discriminatory sentencing† (PMBR & Palmer, 2009, p. 59). However, it is imperative that special care should be taken by the jury to display no arbitrary or discriminatory sentencing and it should ensure that capital punishments are given to the most deserving criminals. Similarly, the Supreme Court of Florida, considering the petition of Thomas H. Provenzano, ruled that â€Å"execution by electrocution in Florida’s electric chair as it exists in its present condition as applied does not constitute cruel or unusual punishment, and therefore, is not unconstitutional† (Supreme Court of Florida, 1999, p. 3).

Relationships with community, family and between male and female are a Essay

Relationships with community, family and between male and female are a constant source of inspiration for Irish writers. Discuss with reference to examples from three genres - Essay Example We would also note that it was indeed Declan Kiberd, the famous professor, author and literary theorist, who criticized the concept of ‘Inventing Ireland’, stating that the literary structure of Ireland was much more than a mere dumping ground of various colonial views. Considered Ireland’s foremost intellectual, Professor Kiebred, who also happened to be an expert in the old Celtic culture and a renowned speaker of the Irish language, argued that the colonial view was superimposed by the English literary class and that there was no truth in their implications. Inventing Ireland was often considered an antidote to the political oppression of a dominant imperial culture and was in reality a fractured theory of a post colonial era which had lesser facts and more farce. The text of ‘Inventing Ireland’ is a comprehensive study of almost all Irish writers and has a large section which is reserved exclusively to highlight the importance of Irish women write rs. (Kiberd, 1997) James Joyce, the author of Dubliners, took cue from the rising Irish Nationalism and depicted his characters as those in search of a national identity. The book discloses the dilemma of the characters that are left standing at a crossroad which has ideas and influences converging through various streams. Out here, confusion reigns supreme and the character is forced to have a better self understanding. The narration, which has children as protagonists, progresses to elderly couples as the stories advance. It highlights the lives and the relationships between males and females and has a direct impact on the author’s intellect to help him provide a true picture of the lives of the Irish Middle Class in the 20 century. The books are incidentally centered on Dublin and provide an insight into the lives and the relationships of a family with the outer world. Considered one of the most

Does capital punishment equate to cruel and unusual punishment Essay

Does capital punishment equate to cruel and unusual punishment - Essay Example This paper is an attempt to identify whether capital punishments can be regarded as cruel and unusual punishments which should be prohibited in the nation. It is essential to consider the Supreme Court’s legislative rulings over capital punishments. In the Gregg v. Georgia case the Supreme Court made it clear that â€Å"the death penalty is not considered cruel and unusual punishment, nor grossly disproportionate to the crime, provided the court’s review procedure affords procedural safeguards to prevent arbitrary or discriminatory sentencing† (PMBR & Palmer, 2009, p. 59). However, it is imperative that special care should be taken by the jury to display no arbitrary or discriminatory sentencing and it should ensure that capital punishments are given to the most deserving criminals. Similarly, the Supreme Court of Florida, considering the petition of Thomas H. Provenzano, ruled that â€Å"execution by electrocution in Florida’s electric chair as it exists in its present condition as applied does not constitute cruel or unusual punishment, and therefore, is not unconstitutional† (Supreme Court of Florida, 1999, p. 3).

Literary Analysis of Shakespeare’s Hamlet Essay Example for Free

Literary Analysis of Shakespeare’s Hamlet Essay In the English Renaissance, identity was an important concern, particularly the construction of identity. As Stephen Greenblatt argues, there is in the early modern period a change in the intellectual, social, psychological, and aesthetic structures that govern the generation of identities that is not only complex but resolutely dialectical (1). The identity of the sovereign was of particular importance: how monarchs shaped their own identities, and how these identities affected their subjects. Taking Greenblatts argument, this paper examines the construction and manipulation of identity in Shakespeares Hamlet: in particular, the ways in which Elizabeth Is self-representations inform the play. In addition, the paper will show how the characterization of Hamlet is shaped by the rule of Elizabeth I, who controlled her public image through elaborately constructed self-representations. Reflecting her use of these representations, Hamlet, who possesses stereotypically feminine attributes, fights to recreate himself as a masculine character to recover his familys and kingdoms honor. The late Elizabethan period was filled with anxiety and dismay over the aging of Queen Elizabeth I. Concern about her impending death was only made worse by her refusal to name a successor. When Shakespeare composed Hamlet in 1600, the playwright was subject to an aging, infirm queen, who at sixty-seven had left no heirs to the English throne. In Hamlet, Shakespeare thus addresses two political problems that England faced at the beginning of the seventeenth-century: royal succession and female sovereignty. As Tennenhouse argues, History plays could not be written after Hamlet, because the whole matter of transferring power from one monarch to another had to be rethought in view of the aging body of the queen (85). The preoccupation of the English public with who would become their new ruler, along with eager anticipation of male kingship, is expressed throughout Hamlet. Although the play is not written as a political allegory, undeniable similarities do exist between aspects of Queen Elizabeth Is public persona and the character of Hamlet. Before further explaining this comparison, however, it is necessary to describe how Elizabeth I shaped her public persona. Elizabeth Is Image As head of the Anglican Church, Elizabeth I was wary to align herself in marriage with a Catholic. Accordingly, Carole Levin argues that Elizabeth I promoted the image of herself as a pristine maiden well into the middle and advanced years of her life: Elizabeth presented herself to her people as a symbol of virginity, a Virgin Queen (64). Whether political or personal, her refusal to marry was in many ways advantageous, for she avoided the disaster of Mary Is match with Phillip II. Yet it also caused a great deal of concern among the populace. As Levin observes, by not marrying, Elizabeth also refused the most obvious function of being a queen, that of bearing a child. Nor would she name a successor as Parliament begged her to do, since Elizabeth was convinced this would increase, rather than ease, both the political tension and her personal danger (66). Elizabeth Is strategy to retain political power may have prevented the usurpation of her authority by a husband, but it did cause disfavor among the English citizens, especially as she grew older without announcing an heir. Anxiety over the succession led to contempt for Elizabeth I, with many people gossiping that she did not marry because she was an unnatural woman. Levin writes, there were rumors that Elizabeth had an impediment that would prohibit regular sexual relations (86). Levin provides an example for these rumors in an excerpt of a letter from her cousin Mary Stuart: indubitably you are not like other women, and it is folly to advance the notion of your marriage with the Duke of Alencon, seeing that such a conjugal union would never be consummated (86). Others claimed that Elizabeth I had illegitimate children who were kept secret (Levin 85). These accusations indicate that English citizens, as well as family relations, perceived Elizabeth Fs prolonged maidenhood as unnatural and even monstrous. Although Elizabeth I was willing to admit to Parliament that she had spent much of her strength, she was careful to cultivate the image of herself as a young woman to the public. One important example of this method is the famous Rainbow Portrait, which Elizabeth I commissioned in approximately 1600, the same period Hamlet was written. Even though Elizabeth I was sixty-seven years old when the painting was commissioned, she appears in the painting to be a young woman (Levin). Elizabeth I created an intricate and diverse image of herself. As an unmarried monarch, she became Englands Virgin Queen. Possessing two bodies, Elizabeth I established masculine authority as Prince and as mother to her subjects. As Elizabeth I grew older, she relied on iconography to deceive the English populace into viewing her as young and vital. These diverse representations of Elizabeth I are complexly reflected in Hamlet. The similarities between Elizabeth I and Gertrude are obvious: both women are perceived as indulgent, sensuous monarchs and are criticized for attempting to act like women younger than their true ages. To Gertrude, Hamlet even states, O shame, where is thy blush? (3. 4. 91). Despite these correspondences, a more interesting analogy exists between Elizabeth I and the character of Hamlet. The paper will compare Elizabeth I, who claimed to have the heart and stomach of a king (Levin 1) with Hamlet, a prince often castigated for acting in a stereotypically feminine manner. Reflections of Elizabeth Is Constructed Identities in Hamlet One attempt by Elizabeth I to maintain her image as the Virgin Queen was a use of heavy cosmetics in an effort to make herself look younger and therefore stronger. Mullaney quotes Jesuit priest Anthony Rivers as describing Elizabeth Is makeup at some celebrations in 1600, when Hamlet was written, to be in some places near half an inch thick (147). Unfortunately for Elizabeth I, this attempt to hide the weakness of her age seems only to have exacerbated her subjects contempt for the assumed weakness of her sex. M. P. Tilley observes that during the late Elizabethan period, there was a strong feeling against a woman using cosmetics (312). Women who used cosmetics, according to popular feeling, altered their bodies, the creations of God, and were therefore not only immodest but blasphemous. According to Mullaney, women who used cosmetics considered to be false women because they created a deceptive face to replace the one given to them by God; altering their natural female appearance made them not truly women. Not only were cosmetics blasphemous and dishonest, they were physically destructive. A woman who painted her face in the Renaissance thus arguably destroyed her person in every way possible: spiritually and bodily. Hamlet displays notable disgust toward painted women, yet critics have overlooked that many of the contemporary Renaissance objections to womens use of cosmetics apply to Hamlets actions. Similar to the way that painted women used cosmetics to disguise the faces that God had given them, Hamlet puts on his antic disposition to disguise the faculties of reason which God has given him (1. 5. 192), faculties which in the Renaissance were an essential aspect of the virtuous man. Whether or not Hamlet is truly mad, he constructs a persona to dissimulate his purpose of revenge. Painted women were disparaged for poisoning their body with dangerous chemicals; Hamlet engages in a dangerous quest to avenge his father, and because of his quest for revenge, he is fatally poisoned. By assuming an antic disposition, a false face, Hamlet is physically poisoned by the bated sword of Laertes. Laertes poison destroys Hamlets body natural and symbolically disrupts the body politic, since Hamlet will be unable to rule Denmark. In addition to putting on an antic disposition, a type of face painting, Hamlet possesses other womanly attributes that would arguably have caused some anxiety. Mullaney asserts that popular opinion in the Renaissance, especially in the final years of Elizabeth Is reign, was against the rule of a female monarch. The English people had always been hesitant to accept a female queen; as Elizabeth I grew older and more infirm, their tolerance for being ruled by a woman diminished. Mullaney further argues that this intolerance was a part of the English subjects realization that Elizabeth I was feeble and politically weakening: for the Renaissance misogyny may in fact be an integral part of the mourning process when the lost object or ideal being processed is a woman, especially but not exclusively when that woman is a queen of England, too (140). As the English publics grief for the decline of their queens strength increased, so too did their contempt for her bodily weakness and inability to govern effectively. Reflecting anxiety about Elizabeths I old age and infirmity, Hamlet displays a stereotypically feminine quality that makes him problematic as heir to the Danish throne. Early in the play, Claudius chides Hamlet for his unmanly grief concerning the passing of his father (1. 2. 98). Elaine Showalter claims that Hamlets emotional vulnerability can readily be conceptualized as feminine (223). Discussing Hamlets creation of a mad persona, Carol Thomas Neely also lists passivity and loss of control among Hamlets feminine attributes during his period of madness (326). Hamlets emotional vulnerability and passivity, when considered in the politically-charged atmosphere of the late Elizabethan period, can even be seen as his downfall. Mullaney, quoting Tennenhouse, argues that Hamlet is a play keenly aware of its late Elizabethan status, in which the impending transfer of power from one monarch to another had to be rethought in view of the aging body of the queen' (149). He goes on to view Hamlet as inhabiting a male-constructed world. Mullaney asserts that like other Shakespearean males, Hamlet achieves a partial if suicidal resolution of the contradictions of patriarchy by constructing a world that is not so much gendered as free from gender differentiation—a world that is all male (158). It is believable that Hamlets true problem is actually the opposite—his world is too female, or rather feminine. Despite the small number of females in the play, Hamlet presents a feminine character in a male body, a twisted reflection of Elizabeth I, who claimed to have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but the heart and stomach of a king (Levin 1). Hamlet possesses the body of a prince, but the heart and stomach of a woman: a fusion which was particularly problematic in the misogynistic environment that prevailed during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. As a feminine character in the body of a male, particularly one who, as Claudius observes, is most immediate to the throne (1. 2. 113), Hamlet cannot be allowed to survive and assume the throne. His death, as well as the passage of the Danish monarchy to the quintessential warrior figure, Fortinbras, reflects the transition of the throne from Elizabeth I to James I. James Is ascension to the English throne alleviated some anxiety of female sovereignty, although his reign showed his peevish, cowardly, and self-indulgent disposition. When Hamlet puts on an antic disposition, crafting himself as mad, he evinces natural traits that are usually associated with feminine weakness. Hamlet is beset with passivity and indecision, two qualities often ascribed to women in the Renaissance (Woodbridge 275-99). Passivity and indecision impede and nearly thwart his quest to obey his fathers demand for revenge. Davis D. McElroy claims that Hamlet, in addition to considering the ghosts exhortation to avenge him, contemplates taking no action at all. McElroy examines the opening five lines of the to be or not to be soliloquy: To be, or not to be, that is the question: Whether is nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing, end them. (3. 1. 64-8) McElroy alleges that these lines, which are generally believed to be Hamlets argument regarding suicide, constitute a different deliberation on revenge: killing Claudius, as the alleged ghost of his father demands, or taking no action at all—a more cowardly decision, certainly, but definitely safer. McElroy compares the two options by examining the rhetoric of chiasmus—claiming that to be refers to taking arms against Claudius and not to be refers to suffering outrageous fortune. He argues that the speech pertains more reasonably to revenge than suicide because killing oneself is more like avoiding ones troubles than opposing them (544). It can be posited that Hamlets indecision concerning his vow to avenge his father parallels Elizabeth Fs refusal to name an heir. As Tennenhouse observes, Where Claudius would be second to Hamlet and Hamlets line in a patrilineal system, the queens husband and uncle of the kings son occupies the privileged male position in a matrilineal system.. . It is to be expected that Claudius could not legally possess the crown, the matrilinear succession having the weaker claim on British political thinking. (89) Hamlets duty is not merely to uphold his promise of vengeance. He also has an obligation to his country to see Claudius removed from the throne and Hamlet, the rightful ruler in patrilineal succession, put in his place. When Hamlet contemplates neglecting this obligation, he endangers the succession to the Danish throne in much the same way that Elizabeth Is secrecy concerning her own succession endangers England. Arguably, Hamlet fails in his responsibility to protect the Danish succession: after Hamlets death, Fortinbras, a Norwegian, assumes the throne. Although Fortinbras is a better candidate than the corrupt Claudius, he is a member of Norways royal line, not Denmarks. Elizabeth Is refusal to marry consigns England to a similar fate regarding kingship and royal lines. James I is a member of the British royal family, but he is a Stuart, not a Tudor. As the Virgin Queen, Elizabeth I secures her own power by refusing to name a successor during her lifetime, but she allows her familial line to die with her. Elizabeth I also protected her political authority by crafting several personas. As seen in the Rainbow Portrait, she took liberally from mythological figures, such as Astraea, Flora, and Diana. Just as Elizabeth I appropriated the appearance and femininity of goddesses, Hamlet appropriates the masculine authority he observes in Fortinbras. Hamlet attempts to construct a persona that goes beyond an antic disposition, wanting to fashion himself as a strong son and leader of Denmark. After hearing of Fortinbrass plan to attack a desolate stretch of Poland, Hamlet resolves to emulate the militant Fortinbras by fashioning himself as a bloody avenger: How stand I, then, That have a father killed, a mother stained, Excitements of my reason and my blood, And let all sleep O, from this time forth My thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth! (4. 4. 59-62, 68-9) Although Hamlet desires to construct himself as an aggressive and violent fighter, he is never able to attain Fortinbrass forcefulness. Hamlets passivity here shows weakness and debility, not qualities appropriate in a military leader or a monarch. Although Hamlet attempts to assume the masculinity of Fortinbras, shaping himself as a potent agent of revenge, Hamlets attempted emulation of Fortinbrass masculinity is merely another false front. Hamlet recognizes his own passivity, but however much he tries to counter and suppress it, his femininity is too firmly a part of his personality for him to overcome it completely. Even though Hamlet seeks to avenge his fathers murder, he is unable to kill Claudius in Act three, scene three. Hamlet decides not to kill Claudius at his attempted prayer, and he thus does not do what he has resolved to do. At this point in the play, the audience sees a fluid character, one who first fashions himself as mad, then earnestly attempts to mold himself like the soldier Fortinbras. However much Hamlet views himself as mutable, he cannot override his passive nature. Hamlet attempts to put on Fortinbrass masculine disposition after killing Polonius and assuring the deaths of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, yet even after returning from his voyage to England, Hamlet is caught in his feminine passivity. Despite his earlier resolve that his thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth (4. 4. 69), Hamlet makes no move against Claudius. He walks with Horatio in the graveyard, where he learns of Ophelias death (5. 1. 253), and he attacks Laertes at her gravesite (5. 1. 273), but he still clings to his false antic disposition. Gertrude calls his behavior mere madness and compares Hamlet to a female dove (5. 1. 302, 304). Hamlets shock and grief at learning about Ophelias death could excuse his distraction from attacking Claudius, but Hamlet delays his task too long. By waiting for Laertes challenge instead of choosing his own time to confront Claudius, Hamlet is forced to fight on the treacherous kings terms and dies at the tip of Laertes poisoned sword. Hamlets struggle mirrors the rule of Elizabeth I, who controlled her public image through elaborately constructed personas. Similar to Hamlet, Elizabeth I attempted to disguise or suppress her feminine weakness. She proclaimed that she possessed a masculine body politic despite her female body natural. Elizabeth I maintained supremacy throughout her reign—no easy task for a woman in the Renaissance—yet her refusal to marry and produce heirs ended the Tudor line of succession. Hamlets plight reflects the anxiety experienced by many English subjects as Elizabeth I grew older with no children to succeed her: as Elizabeth I aged, the question of the sovereigns role or representation to provide for the common welfare became increasingly critical. The Queen was still a mere woman, even though she had the heart and stomach of a king (Levin 1). Equally, Hamlet strives to create a public persona that corresponds with the masculine strength of Fortinbras, but he ultimately succumbs to feminine passivity, even though he is a prince. Conclusion Hamlet reflects the anxiety of many of Elizabeth Is subjects concerning the strength of their Queen and the succession of the monarchy. With no husband and no heir to the throne, the political security of the country was at stake. Furthermore, many citizens were concerned with Elizabeth Is aging body and her undignified attempts to appear younger. This concern developed in many cases into contempt for Elizabeth Is deceptive manipulations of her image. Hamlet has many feminine characteristics that, especially in the climate of Elizabeth Is decline, make him unsuitable as a ruler or potential king. Although he is not naturally suited to the masculine requirements of kingship, Hamlet strives to overcome his feminine nature in order to reinstate the honor and dignity of his family and kingdom. Although he accomplishes this end, his femininity delays him until he is betrayed by Claudius treachery. Hamlet removes Claudius from the throne, but at the cost of many lives, and the Danish monarchy passes to a Norwegian ruler. Like Elizabeth I, Hamlet tries to recreate his identity to gain needed respect and authority, but ultimately fails to protect his fathers line of succession. In Hamlet, readers can surmise some of the feelings Shakespeare may have experienced in the growing misogyny that permeated the final years of Elizabeth Is reign. Like Hamlet, Elizabeth I was not without flaws, and her subjects came to resent her for these weaknesses, anticipating the advent of a more powerful—and masculine—monarch. As Shakespeare demonstrates with Hamlets poignant death and with Fortinbrass triumph, a stronger, more manful monarch is not necessarily a more admirable or worthy one. Works Cited Greenblatt, Stephen. Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1980. Levin, Carole. The Heart and Stomach of a King: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1994. McElroy, Davis D. To Be, or Not to Be—Is That the Question? College English 25. 7 (1964): 543-545. Mullaney, Steven. Mourning and Misogyny: Hamlet, The Revengers Tragedy, and the Final Progress of Elizabeth I, 1600-1607. Shakespeare Quarterly 45. 2 (1994): 139-62. Neely, Carol Thomas. Documents in Madness: Reading Madness and Gender in Shakespeares Tragedies and Early Modern Culture. Shakespeare Quarterly 42. 3 (1991): 315-38. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Eds. Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine. New York: Washington Square P, 1992. Showaiter, Elaine. Representing Ophelia: Women, Madness, and the Responsibilities of Feminist Criticism. Hamlet: Complete, Authoritative Text with Biographical and Historical Contexts, Critical History, and Essays from Five Contemporary Critical Perspectives. Ed. Susanne L. Wofford. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martins Press, 1994. Tennenhouse, Leonard. Power on Display: The Politics of Shakespeares Genres. New York: Methuen, 1986. Tilley, M. P, I Have Heard of Your Paintings Too. (Hamlet III, i, 148). The Review of English Studies 5. 19 (1929): 312-17

Vygotsky’s Theory

Vygotsky’s Theory Explain and Evaluate Vygotskys Theory of the Role of Language in Childrens Cognitive Development Vygotsky described developmental changes in childrens thinking in terms of cultural tools; they use these to make sense of their world. Generally, they use technical tools to change objects or gain mastery over the environment. Moreover, they used psychological tools to organise behavior or thought. According to Vygotskys view, society shapes a childs mind through the transmission of tools which are appropriate for their culture. Both the culture and the childs experiences are necessary to understand childrens cognitive development (â€Å"Social Development Theory,† n.d.) Vygotskys theory was an attempt to explain awareness the product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language or first words, peers or adults are noticing the first utterance and the purpose of communication but after they recognize that they become internalized and allow â€Å"inner speech† (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000). Vygotsky believed that language was one of the most important psychological tools that effects childrens cognitive development. He identified that there are three different stages in the childrens use of language. Firstly, language is an essential factor for communication (social speech). Next, children begin to use egocentric or private speech to control their own thinking. The last stage is language development. Children use verbal thoughts to guide what they are thinking and their actions. (referance). Vygotsky also believed that language and thought first become independent after them being interdependent. He suggested that attainment of a new word was the beginning of the development of a concept. This is supported by a classic study by Carmichael (1932) who gave participants one of two labels for certain drawings. A kidney shape was described either kidney bean or canoe. Following that participants were asked to draw the shape. If the drawing was different form their label according to which label they had been given. As a result of this words can help us to remember things. On the other hand, Sinclair- de -Zward (1969) tried to teach children who could not use comparative terms that were not in their vocabulary. (p116). Such as, bigger or shorter, she found that there was very little improvement in their ability to conserve. The major theme of Vygotskys theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. (p57). Moreover, Vygotsky also identified three concepts in particular for cognitive development to proceed effectively. â€Å"The zone of proximal development is the distance between what children can do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve with competent assistance† (Raymond, 2000, p.176). The scaffolding teaching strategy provides individualized support based on the learners ZPD (Chang, Sung, Chen, 2002). The first is the Zone of proximal development. This zone describes the range of difficult tasks or it is very hard for the learners complete this task alone. However, learners can complete this task with appropriate assistance or someone who is more knowledgeable. Thus according to Vygotsky, cognitive development will occur when a learner is confronted by a task that lies within the zone, if a task is easy to complete for task learners then no cognitive development will occur. Also if the task is too hard for a learner to complete the task alone or even with assistance then no cognitive development will occur. (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000). Evidence for ZPD was produced by McNaughton and Leyland (1990). They observed young children working with their mothers on jigsaw puzzles of increasing difficulty and then after one week the child was working on their own. The children reached higher difficulty when working with their mother. Thus it is explaining their ZPD. The Zone of Proximal Development was related to a kind of scaffolding which is used by the mothers. The mothers were worried about keeping their child on task. During this time generally mothers were focused on helping the children solve the puzzle for themselves, Previous studies looked at middle- income families. Researchers suggested that using different ZPD â€Å"region of sensitivity to instruction,† this term using for mothers and preschoolers in a copying task and it is help to predict childrens subsequent skills on this task. Furthermore, researchers found some differences in how well mothers change their level of encouragement style based on the childs performance (â€Å"i.e., providing less support after the child succeeded and more support after failure† and these differences were also helping to predict a childrens ability to gain understanding and learn information . (Wood et al., 1976; Wood Middleton, 1975). The second concept is that the scaffolding which describes the nature of the assistantce given by the more knowledgeable person. In this time the learner completes the task with the Zone of Proximal development (with assistance). Infants cognitive development depends on the assistance level. If the assistance is great at first and then it is slightly reduced as the learners skill improves, ultimately, the learner will be able to complete the task but the cognitive development will only continue if the task is replaced with another task or a more complex task which is modified to the new zone. (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000). Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the â€Å"role of teachers and others in supporting the learners development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level† (Raymond, 2000, p. 176).An important aspect of scaffolding instruction is that the scaffolds are temporary. As the learners abilities increase the scaffolding provided by the more knowledgeable other is progressively withdrawn. Finally the learner is able to complete the task or master the concepts independently (Chang, Sung, Chen, 2002, p. 7). Therefore, the goal of the teacher when using the scaffolding teaching technique is for the student to become an independent and self- regulating learner and problem solver (Hartman, 2002). There is one study which examined the relation of maternal scaffolding and childrens attention regulation abilities in preschool children from low-income families within the context of a parent-child interaction task and in a child-alone task. According to this maternal scaffolding behaviors are different between mothers of children with attention regulation skills. For example, whose children show poor attention regulation skills, it emerges that parent and child interactions are more likely to engage verbally with their children, more strategic questions, â€Å"verbal hints and verbal prompt† (Olson and Platt, 2000, p.180). The amount of childrens attention regulation skills is related to the mothers level of scaffolding to predict child performance when they are alone to complete a task. Attention regulation skills are also related to independent performance when contexts including high maternal scaffolding. Findings provide important information parents promote attention regulation skills in children especially who are at risk for poor academic outcomes (Blair, 2002; Sethi, Mischel, Aber, Shoda, Rodriguez, 2000). The current study focused on a parent-child puzzle matching task to understand how children regulate their attention process when with their mother and when alone. How specific mothers behavior are related to childrens abilities to understand to regulate their own behavior and transfer these abilities to independent tasks. Researchers especially focused on verbal behaviors of mothers which are related to childrens attention regulation skills. (Norman, Breznitz, 1992) Researchers have focused on different socioeconomic status in families. An empirical research has exposed that there has been significant differences in interactional characteristics in families of different socioeconomic levels (Gottfried, 1984; Hart Risley, 1992, 1995; Heath, 1989). According to research results show that different socioeconomic status has been shown to influence the nature parent-child interactions. Another research was done by Wood (1976) who observed children aged 4-5 who were working with their mother on problem solving tasks. Some mothers gave verbal encouragement and others more specific help including demonstrations of what to do. The most effective strategy was combined both general and specific instructions, the mother was adapting to the learners achievement and failures. The mother gave instructions when the learner had difficulty but mothers gave general encouragement when the child was coping well. Kopp (1987) reported that specific types of control technique used by caregivers affected childrens self regulation skills. For instance, middle income families who encouraged their children to be independen,t their children were more likely to have low rate on impulsivity, problems of cconcentration and hyperactivity, and high on self-control measures. Similarly, Grolnick and Ryan (1989) have found that high levesl of parental support of independence was associated with more self regulation and they are more likely to less acting behavior. Based on these studies, the amount of caregiver control affects childs behavior and it is also related to childrens self- regulation abilities. When children get older parents give their children a number of responsibilities for example, children become independent regulators of their own thinking processes. According to Vygotsky (1978) view of socio-cognitive transaction makes it easy to improve childrens cognitive development is the ability to become same structure situation like an adults, it is depends to the childs ability levels. The third concept is psychological tools give another reason that â€Å"social interaction† is an essential factor in cognitive development. Psychological tools are â€Å"intellectual mechanisms or operations† which people use to examine their environment and interact with others. Here is some examples of psychological tools â€Å"written language, symbols, maps and scientific method and oral language† (Gredler and Shields, 2004). Evaluation of Vygotskys theory; There has been very little empirical investigation research on Vygorskys theory however there are much more research on Piagets theory. Further limitation relates to Vygotskys social emphasis. Whereas Piagets give minimise attention to social influences, Vygotskys give too much weight to social influences. There has been also some strengths, for example, Vygotskys approach provides an association between social and cognitive domains. (Vygotsky, 1978) There are a number of important distinctions between Piagets and Vygotskys theories. The most important ones are that teachers worry about the role of language and learning in development. But Piaget believed that egocentric speech is not a useful function in young childrens development. Vygotsky argued that egocentric speech is the way children recognise and regulate their thoughts and actions. Piaget claimed that childrens development is limited and it is associated with what children are able to learn from social experiences (Vygotsky, 1978) Vygotsky( 1934/1986) disagree with Piagets conclusions. Language helps children to think about mental abilities, behaviors and select courses of action. He believed that it is the foundation for all higher cognitive processes including controlled attention, deliberate memorization, recall categorization, planning problem solving, abstract reasoning and self reflection. Vygotskys view is that children speak themselves for self guidance. When they get older they find some tasks easier, their self directed speech isinternalised as salient in inner speech and the internal speech verbal dialogs people always carry on while thinking and acting in everyday situations. ( Vygotsky, 1986) To conclude vygotskys theory of socio-cultural theory is important to understand child cognitive development. Especially, he divided into three concepts which gave more clear information and each zone gives completely different information. However there have been some negative aspects of this theory, it does not tell how children internalize social experience to advance their mental functioning. He just gave a little information about biological contributions to childs cognition. However, his theory emphasised cognitive change Vygotsky theory leads up to expect diverse path of development. ( Vygotsky, 1978) References: Blair, C. (2002). Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of childrens functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57, 111−127. Bransford, J., Brown, A., Cocking, R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, and Experience School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Chang, K., Chen, I., Sung, Y. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and summarization. The Journal of Experimental Education 71(1), 5-23. Hartman, H. (2002). Scaffolding Cooperative Learning. Human Learning and Instruction (pp. 23-69). New York: City College of City University of New York. Hart, B., Risley, T. R. (1992). American parenting of language-learning children: Persisting differences in family-child interactions observed in natural home environments. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1096−1105. Hart, B., Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experiences of young American children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Heath, S. B. (1989). Oral and literate traditions among Black Americans living in poverty. American Psychologist, 44, 367−373. Kopp, C. B. (1987). The growth of self-regulation: Caregivers and children. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Contemporary topics in developmental psychology (pp. 34−35). New York: Wiley. Gredler, M., Shields, C. (2004). Does no one read Vygotskys words? Commentary on Glass Commentary on Glassman. Educational Researcher, 33(2), 21 25. Gottfried, A. W. (1984). Home environment and early cognitive environment. Integration, meta-analysis, and conclusions. In A. W. Gottfried (Ed.), Home environment and early cognitive development: Longitudinal research (pp. 329−342). Orlando, FL: Academic Pres Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M. (1989). Parent styles associated with childrens self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 143−154 Norman, G., Breznitz, Z. (1992). Difference in the ability to concentrate in first grade Israeli pupils of low and high socioeconomic status. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 153, 5−17. Olson, J. and Platt, J. (2000). The Instructional Cycle. Teaching Children and Adolescents with Special Needs (pp. 170-197). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive Characteristics. Learners with Mild Disabilities (pp. 169-201). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn Bacon, A Pearson Education Company. Sethi, A., Mischel, W., Aber, J. L., Shoda, Y., Rodriguez, M. L. (2000). The role of strategic attention deployment in development of self-regulation: Predicting preschoolers delay of gratification from mother-toddler interactions. Developmental Psychology, 36, 767−777. Social Development Theory. (No date). Retrieved November 3, 2002, from http:// tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html Norman, G., Breznitz, Z. (1992). Difference in the ability to concentrate in first grade Israeli pupils of low and high socioeconomic status. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 153, 5−17. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, Lev. 1986. Thought and Language (translated by Alex Kozulin). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. (Original work published 1934.) Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Wood, D., Bruner, J., Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry, 17, 89−100. Wood, D., Middleton, D. (1975). A study of assisted problem-solving. British Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 181−191.